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Resources for the ino
The term "ino" has a somewhat complex origin. Indian Vinaya texts refer to a karma-dāna or “assigner of duties.” In Buddha’s sangha, the monks realized there was no one in charge of announcing the time or other things, keeping the facilities clean and doing set-up, taking care of provisions, or warning people when they were noisy or unruly. Buddha said someone should be assigned to do those things. When Buddhism reached China, Karma-dana was translated into Chinese as “disciplinarian” (kōi 綱維). Both kō and i refer to a rope used for securely tying a load onto a cart. The sense here is of the person who keeps the rules to keep the sangha orderly and harmonious.
In Japan, koi was transliterated as katsuma dana 羯磨陀那. Eventually it was shortened to simply a combination of the i from koi and the na from katsuma-dana: ina. This position is also called esshu (悦衆), "giving joy to the sangha."
By Dogen’s time, the ino was in charge of registering monks for retreats, enforcing rules, advising the shuso, maintaining discipline in the sangha hall, leading the sutra chanting and reciting the ekō. Thus there were two areas of responsibility: managing or disciplining practitioners and leading chanting. In the Eihei Chiji Shingi (Pure Standards for the Temple Administrators), Dōgen quotes an earlier text that describes the ino role:
The inō is responsible for all matters regarding the monastic community staying in the monks’ hall. When there are newly arrived monks, the inō checks their ordination certificate issued by the government to make sure of their dharma-age, to make a determination of the order of seniority of monks, and to arrange the appropriate seat in the monks’ hall. If there is something questionable regarding someone’s certificate, the inō should contact the government through the temple office to clarify it. When a monk dies, the inō should report the death of the monk and return his certificate of ordination to the government.
The inō should keep the temple facilities such as the monks’ hall, dormitories, etc. in good shape and make seasonal changes so that monks can practice comfortably. The inō also assigns the monks who are in charge of such minor work. The inō makes necessary arrangements for sick monks to be well taken care of.
When there is a serious violation of the rules, the inō should report it to the abbot to get approval, then expel the person from the temple. When the violation is minor, the inō should change the person’s work position and/or resting place.
When there is a conflict or dispute among monks, the inō should pacify the conflict by having both parties courteously reconciled. If both parties do not accept the mediation, the inō should judge them according to the rules.
When there is something to announce to the monks, the inō should hit the tsui-chin (mallet) placed beside the Manjushri altar in the monks’ hall, and make the announcement.
The inō is in charge of leading the formal chanting at daily services, and formal meals in the monks’ hall.
The inō should make it clear that all monks including the abbot participate in communal work.”
We can see why this is a leadership position. When someone arrives, the ino makes sure they’re legitimate and assign a seat in the right order. When a member of the ordained sangha dies, the ino notifies the government (today we notify Sotoshu). The ino manages the facilities and the people who work on the facilities. When someone breaks the rules or conflict breaks out, the ino deals with it and gets it resolved. The ino makes the announcements, leads the chanting during services and formal meals, and makes sure everyone including the abbot shows up for work period.
The ino’s assistant is the doan, which is short for “hall manager’s” (dōsu 堂司) “assistant” (anja 行者). The doan’s job is to direct the movements of the great assembly, for instance by playing percussion instruments that signal the start of activities, hanging placards, making verbal announcements, and so on. The doan is not the same as the jikido, though in North America, because sanghas are small, the three jobs of ino, doan and jikido are often conflated and there’s some confusion. The jikido facilitates the functioning of the zendo: time, bells, set-up, etc. The doan does not manage zazen; the doan has a liturgical function.
Today in North America, the ino might be concerned with teaching forms, overseeing day to day practice activities, making work assignments if there’s no work leader, and training people in service positions. To do that, he or she needs a clear understanding of the practice vision: what kind of practice we’re doing, who we are as a sangha, and how we’re moving people toward deepening their practice.
In Japan, koi was transliterated as katsuma dana 羯磨陀那. Eventually it was shortened to simply a combination of the i from koi and the na from katsuma-dana: ina. This position is also called esshu (悦衆), "giving joy to the sangha."
By Dogen’s time, the ino was in charge of registering monks for retreats, enforcing rules, advising the shuso, maintaining discipline in the sangha hall, leading the sutra chanting and reciting the ekō. Thus there were two areas of responsibility: managing or disciplining practitioners and leading chanting. In the Eihei Chiji Shingi (Pure Standards for the Temple Administrators), Dōgen quotes an earlier text that describes the ino role:
The inō is responsible for all matters regarding the monastic community staying in the monks’ hall. When there are newly arrived monks, the inō checks their ordination certificate issued by the government to make sure of their dharma-age, to make a determination of the order of seniority of monks, and to arrange the appropriate seat in the monks’ hall. If there is something questionable regarding someone’s certificate, the inō should contact the government through the temple office to clarify it. When a monk dies, the inō should report the death of the monk and return his certificate of ordination to the government.
The inō should keep the temple facilities such as the monks’ hall, dormitories, etc. in good shape and make seasonal changes so that monks can practice comfortably. The inō also assigns the monks who are in charge of such minor work. The inō makes necessary arrangements for sick monks to be well taken care of.
When there is a serious violation of the rules, the inō should report it to the abbot to get approval, then expel the person from the temple. When the violation is minor, the inō should change the person’s work position and/or resting place.
When there is a conflict or dispute among monks, the inō should pacify the conflict by having both parties courteously reconciled. If both parties do not accept the mediation, the inō should judge them according to the rules.
When there is something to announce to the monks, the inō should hit the tsui-chin (mallet) placed beside the Manjushri altar in the monks’ hall, and make the announcement.
The inō is in charge of leading the formal chanting at daily services, and formal meals in the monks’ hall.
The inō should make it clear that all monks including the abbot participate in communal work.”
We can see why this is a leadership position. When someone arrives, the ino makes sure they’re legitimate and assign a seat in the right order. When a member of the ordained sangha dies, the ino notifies the government (today we notify Sotoshu). The ino manages the facilities and the people who work on the facilities. When someone breaks the rules or conflict breaks out, the ino deals with it and gets it resolved. The ino makes the announcements, leads the chanting during services and formal meals, and makes sure everyone including the abbot shows up for work period.
The ino’s assistant is the doan, which is short for “hall manager’s” (dōsu 堂司) “assistant” (anja 行者). The doan’s job is to direct the movements of the great assembly, for instance by playing percussion instruments that signal the start of activities, hanging placards, making verbal announcements, and so on. The doan is not the same as the jikido, though in North America, because sanghas are small, the three jobs of ino, doan and jikido are often conflated and there’s some confusion. The jikido facilitates the functioning of the zendo: time, bells, set-up, etc. The doan does not manage zazen; the doan has a liturgical function.
Today in North America, the ino might be concerned with teaching forms, overseeing day to day practice activities, making work assignments if there’s no work leader, and training people in service positions. To do that, he or she needs a clear understanding of the practice vision: what kind of practice we’re doing, who we are as a sangha, and how we’re moving people toward deepening their practice.
Training and explaining
The way we learn in the temple is not the way we learn at school or at work. We learn by watching and doing, not by simply following handouts and checklists. That means we have to be present and paying attention. At Sanshin, this is an important aspect of non-reliance: actively engaging with the training we receive and making diligent effort, and not just expecting a system to carry us along. In North America, this is not what newer practitioners expect, and the ino must help them to understand that "efficiency" is not the goal. We learn with body and mind, not just with the intellect, and the point is not simply to get the job done but to cultivate the appropriate attitude and understanding. It's important that those in service roles attend practice on days other than those on which they have assignments. Simply "coming in to cover your shift" gives no opportunity to watch how others carry out the same activities or to get a sense of the larger practice functioning in the zendo.
In North America we need explanations for the roles we're asked to take on, because we usually don’t have context. However, we can’t just talk about these roles; people have to actually rehearse and do them with guidance, and they will make mistakes. Sure, it seems easy to ring a bell until it becomes clear that there are many subtle nuances of tone, volume and timing that contribute to the atmosphere in the zendo. Those must be demonstrated and then thoroughly experimented with on one's own time, outside of communal activities. We can’t prevent all mistakes. and failure is an option, but it’s not a joke: oh well, we’ll just get through it somehow accompanied by a sheepish laugh. We keep high expectations, but help practitioners meet them.
In the training temple, corrections are made publicly so that everyone has the chance to learn something. North Americans with fragile egos can be very uncomfortable with this: Couldn't you have pulled me aside and pointed out my mistakes in private? Instead, giving that information to the group while the incident is still fresh means the next person to take that role will not make the same mistake. Tomorrow, it will be someone else receiving corrections from which we all will benefit. We learn and take on these roles for the sake of the entire community.
Learning, trying and publicly failing are huge dharma gates and ego-busters. We have to develop resilience and learn how to fail without self-involvement. It’s good if participants don’t choose their own assignments so they we can’t just coast along on what they know. We don't want to scare people away, but we don't want to become lax and sloppy just because we don’t want anyone to be uncomfortable or feel challenged. Everyone has had a first day in the zendo and practitioners need to be reminded that we've all been confused and uncomfortable at some point. It's an important practice opportunity.
The ino can set an atmosphere that encourages people to develop their own leadership. Mistakes will be made, and our response is important. If the same old people are always doing everything, it’s not a sustainable situation in the long term and it’s a loss for everyone else. The newest person in the zendo can be asked to help move things, clean things or put things away, demonstrating that they have something to contribute to the sangha. Practice is not a performance put on by hosts for guests. There are no guests in the zendo, only members of the community, practicing together.
In North America we need explanations for the roles we're asked to take on, because we usually don’t have context. However, we can’t just talk about these roles; people have to actually rehearse and do them with guidance, and they will make mistakes. Sure, it seems easy to ring a bell until it becomes clear that there are many subtle nuances of tone, volume and timing that contribute to the atmosphere in the zendo. Those must be demonstrated and then thoroughly experimented with on one's own time, outside of communal activities. We can’t prevent all mistakes. and failure is an option, but it’s not a joke: oh well, we’ll just get through it somehow accompanied by a sheepish laugh. We keep high expectations, but help practitioners meet them.
In the training temple, corrections are made publicly so that everyone has the chance to learn something. North Americans with fragile egos can be very uncomfortable with this: Couldn't you have pulled me aside and pointed out my mistakes in private? Instead, giving that information to the group while the incident is still fresh means the next person to take that role will not make the same mistake. Tomorrow, it will be someone else receiving corrections from which we all will benefit. We learn and take on these roles for the sake of the entire community.
Learning, trying and publicly failing are huge dharma gates and ego-busters. We have to develop resilience and learn how to fail without self-involvement. It’s good if participants don’t choose their own assignments so they we can’t just coast along on what they know. We don't want to scare people away, but we don't want to become lax and sloppy just because we don’t want anyone to be uncomfortable or feel challenged. Everyone has had a first day in the zendo and practitioners need to be reminded that we've all been confused and uncomfortable at some point. It's an important practice opportunity.
The ino can set an atmosphere that encourages people to develop their own leadership. Mistakes will be made, and our response is important. If the same old people are always doing everything, it’s not a sustainable situation in the long term and it’s a loss for everyone else. The newest person in the zendo can be asked to help move things, clean things or put things away, demonstrating that they have something to contribute to the sangha. Practice is not a performance put on by hosts for guests. There are no guests in the zendo, only members of the community, practicing together.
Liturgy and chanting
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Sometimes it falls to the ino to construct or modify a service or write an eko, usually for review by a senior teacher, so it's important to know what the elements are and how they go together. The choice of elements and their order is not random or based on personal preference.
Traditionally the point is to generate merit by chanting texts and then to dedicate that merit to various beings and to ask for certain favorable conditions. There are also the sociological functions of liturgy and ritual:
There's a story arc to liturgy. In full standard Soto Zen morning liturgy (chōka fugin 朝課諷経), the dedication moves from the most abstract to the least abstract.
In the abbreviated version (ryaku chōka fugin 略朝課諷経) that we do at Sanshin, amounting to two individual services:
As for the ekos, the purpose is to dedicate the merit we’ve just generated by chanting the text and to set some intention for favorable circumstances. Ekos have their own pattern or structure:
For example: May the Three Treasures illuminate our awakening in practice. Having chanted the Dai Hi Shin Darani, we dedicate this merit to the deceased monks throughout the Dharma realm; and to— [names of those who have died]; may they know rest and attain Buddhahood; to— [names of those who are ill]; may they know comfort and peace; to the founding patrons of this temple, and to sentient beings throughout the Dharma Realm. May they perfect awakening in Buddha’s Way. It's important for the ino to understand liturgical structure because sometimes you have to create your own in order to respond to the needs of your sangha. The arc of the story must remain intact in the service and the eko; otherwise it feels like chapters of a book that are out of order. Simply choosing poems you like or including only the verse of repentance or the bodhisattva vows before an eko doesn't make sense, because without chanting Buddha's teachings, there's no merit generated that can be dedicated. Here's an example. In 2023 Sanshin let go of a building we had been renting for many years, using it as a dormitory, meeting space and communal kitchen. We held a closing service that included this original eko, which was based on traditional eko but included our particular purposes: May we awaken the three minds of kindness, joy and magnanimity. [We always begin original ekos with this nod to sanshin, the three minds.] Innumerable merits vast and wide, sacred virtues clear and bright: Within the totally interpenetrated functioning of this one unified reality, these are never separate from all beings. Today we have arrived at the time of farewell to this space which has sheltered our practice life for many years. Humbly gathering the present pure assembly, we respectfully inform the many beings caring for this place, and thank them for their attentive concern. Having chanted the Heart of Great Wisdom Sutra, we dedicate the great blessings accumulated thereby to the earth spirit and protecting spirits of this temple, and to all dharma-protecting devas and benevolent deities. May it increase their majestic light and their virtues, immeasurable as the ocean. May our practice of the way continue without hindrance, our community enjoy harmony and tranquility, and our temple be a place of refuge in the Buddha, dharma and sangha. The ino can be creative in meeting sangha needs, but it's good to understand the purposes and patterns of liturgy and help the sangha see the arc of that story. |
Five qualities of chanting in the Soto Zen tradition
Honesty—sincere and unaffected, with no attempt at deception and no idea about what constitutes a “good” or “bad” voice. Harmony—gentle, warm and elegant. Clarity—clear or transparent. Fullness—deep and resonant. Reach—delivers to every corner of the room |
About Soto Zen liturgy (from Sotoshu)
The main genres of Buddhist literature used in Soto Zen liturgy in Japan are: sutras (kyō 経),dharanis (dārani 陀羅 尼), treatises (ron 論), eko (ekōmon 回向文), and verses (ge 偈, mon 文). The scriptures in question are many in number, varied in literary form and derivation, and extremely rich and diverse in philosophical, ethical, and spiritual content. When chanted in the context of formal Zen ritual and practice, however, they have a limited number of functions that can be clearly distinguished.
Sutras are texts revered as sermons of the Indian Buddha, Shakyamuni. Those used in the Zen tradition are mainly Mahayana scriptures, such as the Heart Sutra and Lotus Sutra. They are written and recited in classical Chinese, albeit using Japanese phonetics (on yomi 音読み),which means that the chanting is incomprehensible to the average listener. Most well-educated Japanese can read classical Chinese to some extent, so the chanting may be understood if they also have a written text to follow or if, having memorized the text by chanting it many times, they can visually recall the Chinese characters as they are intoned. When sutras are studied, they are usually read in Japanese translation. While many of the teachings and beliefs expressed in them are very important in the Zen tradition, the main reason for chanting sutras in liturgical settings is not to broadcast their meaning but rather to produce spiritual merit (kudoku 功徳) for subsequent ritual offering and dedication to a variety of beings and purposes. In some elaborate rites, merit is produced by "revolving reading" (tendoku 転読), which entails flipping through the pages of a long sutra without actually chanting the words.
Dharanis (also called mantras) are magical spells: strings of sounds that are deemed sacred and powerful, although they often have little or no discernible semantic value. Proper pronunciation of the sounds is deemed necessary for them to be effective. The classical Chinese characters in which the dharanis used in Soto liturgy are written were all selected for their phonetic values (not their meanings) as a device to transliterate (not translate) spells that were originally written and/or chanted in Indic languages. Japanese liturgical handbooks always include a pronunciation guide, written in the kana syllabary, that runs alongside the Chinese characters. Dharanis employ a mode of speech that is performative rather than communicative: they are believed to magically accomplish things, such as appeasing spirits or preventing disasters. But their main function in Soto liturgy, like sutras, is to produce merit for ritual dedication.
Treatises are commentaries on sutras or independent presentations of Buddhist doctrine attributed to eminent teachers other than the Buddha himself. Two treatises used regularly in Soto liturgy are the Harmony of Difference and Equality, by Shitou Xiqian (700—790), and the Precious Mirror Samadhi, by Dongshan Liangjie (807-869). These texts, originally written in classical Chinese, are recited in Japanese translation. When chanted in the context of ritual offerings to ancestral teachers (soshi 祖師), they serve the dual purposes of generating merit and honoring the authors, who belong to and are representative of the Soto Zen lineage. Two other treatises used in Soto liturgy are Dogen's Universally Recommended Instructions for Zazen, and The Meaning of Practice and Verification, a modern compilation of passages taken from his Shōbōgenzō. Although the former is written in Chinese, both works are chanted in classical Japanese. Their function in Soto liturgy is to commemorate Dogen, the founder of the Soto school in Japan, and to present a capsule summary of his most important teachings.
Eko are verses for transferring merit, written in classical Chinese but usually chanted in Japanese translation. The verses generally have two parts. The first states how the merit was generated (naming the particular texts chanted for that purpose), who it is to be transferred to, and the specific ends to which it is dedicated. The second part is a prayer that asks for something in exchange for the merit just given.
Verses are short poems, composed in classical Chinese, that express Buddhist ideals and values. Some, such as the Formal Meal Verses, Bath Verse, and Face-Washing Verse, are used in the context of Zen monastic training to sanctify and give religious meaning to otherwise mundane activities. They are always recited when and where the activity in question takes place, either by a group (as in the case of meals) or by individuals (as when entering the bath or toilet). Others verses, such as the Three Refuges Verse, Four Vows, Repentance Verse, and Verse of Homage to Buddha’s Relics, are chanted as acts of commitment and worship in and of themselves. They are usually intoned by groups in conjunction with sutra-chanting and other services, but in essence their recitation is an individual act of devotion. The verses used in Soto liturgy are not unique to the Zen school; almost all derive from the Chinese Buddhist tradition at large. Most are chanted in the original classical Chinese word order, but a few (such as the Verse of Five Contemplations recited at meals) are translated into and chanted in Japanese.
Among the most common settings in which texts are chanted in Soto monasteries and temples are the daily, monthly, and annual sutra-chanting services (fugin 諷経). These are rites in which spiritual merit (kudoku 功徳 is first generated by chanting Buddhist sutras, dharanis,or treatises and then ritually transferred (ekō 回向 to various recipients who are named in a formal verse for transferring merit. Sutra-chanting services are used to make offerings of merit to a wide range of beings: the Buddha Shakyamuni; his immediate disciples, the arhats; the lineage of ancestral teachers through whom the Zen dharma has been transmitted; the two leading founders of the Soto Zen tradition in Japan, Dogen and Keizan; the founding abbot and other former abbots of particular monasteries; various dharma-protecting and monastery-protecting deities, including Indian devas, Chinese spirits, and Japanese kami; the ancestors of lay patrons of Soto temples; and hungry ghosts, denizens of hell, and various other benighted and suffering spirits. Particular sutra-chanting services are distinguished by (and sometimes named after) the main figures to whom merit is transferred, but it is common for a single service to include offerings to a number of ancillary or minor figures at the same time.
Other ritual settings in which texts are chanted to produce and dedicate merit include: monthly memorial services (gakki 月忌 for Dogen, Keizan, and the founding abbot of each monastery; annual memorial services (nenki 年忌) for them, other ancestors in the Soto Zen lineage, and lay patrons; funerals (sogi 喪儀 for monks and lay followers; and various routine and occasional recitation services (nenjū 念誦 and prayer services (kitō 祈禱).
All sutra-chanting, memorial, and funeral services are held before altars on which images or name tablets of the major recipients of the offerings are enshrined. The chanting that produces the merit is generally done in unison by all the monks (and sometimes laity) present at a service, whereas the eko, or verse for transferring the merit, is recited by a single person, a monastic officer known as the cantor (ino 維那). The oral performance in which merit is generated and transferred is often accompanied by other, more physical offerings at an altar, such as the burning of incense or the presentation of food and drink.
Recitation and prayer services are somewhat different in that the merit produced is dedicated not to individuals, but rather in support of specific benefits that are prayed for, such as recovery from illness, harmony in the community, or the success of a monastic retreat. There being no named recipients of offerings, such services need not be performed before an altar, but may be held in other places, such as an infirmary or meditation hall.
To summarize, the three most important ritual functions of Soto Zen liturgy are the production and dedication of merit, the commemoration of ancestral teachers, and the sanctification of routine activities in the daily lives of Zen practitioners. But regardless of how they are used in ritual settings, most of the texts that are chanted in Soto Zen services and practice can also be read for their meaning, as works of philosophy, ethics, and/or inspirational religious literature. Far from being mutually exclusive, the various functions that the scriptures have are mutually supportive and enriching.
T. Griffith Foulk
Editor
Soto Zen Text Project
Sutras are texts revered as sermons of the Indian Buddha, Shakyamuni. Those used in the Zen tradition are mainly Mahayana scriptures, such as the Heart Sutra and Lotus Sutra. They are written and recited in classical Chinese, albeit using Japanese phonetics (on yomi 音読み),which means that the chanting is incomprehensible to the average listener. Most well-educated Japanese can read classical Chinese to some extent, so the chanting may be understood if they also have a written text to follow or if, having memorized the text by chanting it many times, they can visually recall the Chinese characters as they are intoned. When sutras are studied, they are usually read in Japanese translation. While many of the teachings and beliefs expressed in them are very important in the Zen tradition, the main reason for chanting sutras in liturgical settings is not to broadcast their meaning but rather to produce spiritual merit (kudoku 功徳) for subsequent ritual offering and dedication to a variety of beings and purposes. In some elaborate rites, merit is produced by "revolving reading" (tendoku 転読), which entails flipping through the pages of a long sutra without actually chanting the words.
Dharanis (also called mantras) are magical spells: strings of sounds that are deemed sacred and powerful, although they often have little or no discernible semantic value. Proper pronunciation of the sounds is deemed necessary for them to be effective. The classical Chinese characters in which the dharanis used in Soto liturgy are written were all selected for their phonetic values (not their meanings) as a device to transliterate (not translate) spells that were originally written and/or chanted in Indic languages. Japanese liturgical handbooks always include a pronunciation guide, written in the kana syllabary, that runs alongside the Chinese characters. Dharanis employ a mode of speech that is performative rather than communicative: they are believed to magically accomplish things, such as appeasing spirits or preventing disasters. But their main function in Soto liturgy, like sutras, is to produce merit for ritual dedication.
Treatises are commentaries on sutras or independent presentations of Buddhist doctrine attributed to eminent teachers other than the Buddha himself. Two treatises used regularly in Soto liturgy are the Harmony of Difference and Equality, by Shitou Xiqian (700—790), and the Precious Mirror Samadhi, by Dongshan Liangjie (807-869). These texts, originally written in classical Chinese, are recited in Japanese translation. When chanted in the context of ritual offerings to ancestral teachers (soshi 祖師), they serve the dual purposes of generating merit and honoring the authors, who belong to and are representative of the Soto Zen lineage. Two other treatises used in Soto liturgy are Dogen's Universally Recommended Instructions for Zazen, and The Meaning of Practice and Verification, a modern compilation of passages taken from his Shōbōgenzō. Although the former is written in Chinese, both works are chanted in classical Japanese. Their function in Soto liturgy is to commemorate Dogen, the founder of the Soto school in Japan, and to present a capsule summary of his most important teachings.
Eko are verses for transferring merit, written in classical Chinese but usually chanted in Japanese translation. The verses generally have two parts. The first states how the merit was generated (naming the particular texts chanted for that purpose), who it is to be transferred to, and the specific ends to which it is dedicated. The second part is a prayer that asks for something in exchange for the merit just given.
Verses are short poems, composed in classical Chinese, that express Buddhist ideals and values. Some, such as the Formal Meal Verses, Bath Verse, and Face-Washing Verse, are used in the context of Zen monastic training to sanctify and give religious meaning to otherwise mundane activities. They are always recited when and where the activity in question takes place, either by a group (as in the case of meals) or by individuals (as when entering the bath or toilet). Others verses, such as the Three Refuges Verse, Four Vows, Repentance Verse, and Verse of Homage to Buddha’s Relics, are chanted as acts of commitment and worship in and of themselves. They are usually intoned by groups in conjunction with sutra-chanting and other services, but in essence their recitation is an individual act of devotion. The verses used in Soto liturgy are not unique to the Zen school; almost all derive from the Chinese Buddhist tradition at large. Most are chanted in the original classical Chinese word order, but a few (such as the Verse of Five Contemplations recited at meals) are translated into and chanted in Japanese.
Among the most common settings in which texts are chanted in Soto monasteries and temples are the daily, monthly, and annual sutra-chanting services (fugin 諷経). These are rites in which spiritual merit (kudoku 功徳 is first generated by chanting Buddhist sutras, dharanis,or treatises and then ritually transferred (ekō 回向 to various recipients who are named in a formal verse for transferring merit. Sutra-chanting services are used to make offerings of merit to a wide range of beings: the Buddha Shakyamuni; his immediate disciples, the arhats; the lineage of ancestral teachers through whom the Zen dharma has been transmitted; the two leading founders of the Soto Zen tradition in Japan, Dogen and Keizan; the founding abbot and other former abbots of particular monasteries; various dharma-protecting and monastery-protecting deities, including Indian devas, Chinese spirits, and Japanese kami; the ancestors of lay patrons of Soto temples; and hungry ghosts, denizens of hell, and various other benighted and suffering spirits. Particular sutra-chanting services are distinguished by (and sometimes named after) the main figures to whom merit is transferred, but it is common for a single service to include offerings to a number of ancillary or minor figures at the same time.
Other ritual settings in which texts are chanted to produce and dedicate merit include: monthly memorial services (gakki 月忌 for Dogen, Keizan, and the founding abbot of each monastery; annual memorial services (nenki 年忌) for them, other ancestors in the Soto Zen lineage, and lay patrons; funerals (sogi 喪儀 for monks and lay followers; and various routine and occasional recitation services (nenjū 念誦 and prayer services (kitō 祈禱).
All sutra-chanting, memorial, and funeral services are held before altars on which images or name tablets of the major recipients of the offerings are enshrined. The chanting that produces the merit is generally done in unison by all the monks (and sometimes laity) present at a service, whereas the eko, or verse for transferring the merit, is recited by a single person, a monastic officer known as the cantor (ino 維那). The oral performance in which merit is generated and transferred is often accompanied by other, more physical offerings at an altar, such as the burning of incense or the presentation of food and drink.
Recitation and prayer services are somewhat different in that the merit produced is dedicated not to individuals, but rather in support of specific benefits that are prayed for, such as recovery from illness, harmony in the community, or the success of a monastic retreat. There being no named recipients of offerings, such services need not be performed before an altar, but may be held in other places, such as an infirmary or meditation hall.
To summarize, the three most important ritual functions of Soto Zen liturgy are the production and dedication of merit, the commemoration of ancestral teachers, and the sanctification of routine activities in the daily lives of Zen practitioners. But regardless of how they are used in ritual settings, most of the texts that are chanted in Soto Zen services and practice can also be read for their meaning, as works of philosophy, ethics, and/or inspirational religious literature. Far from being mutually exclusive, the various functions that the scriptures have are mutually supportive and enriching.
T. Griffith Foulk
Editor
Soto Zen Text Project